This episode was made possible by a grant from the Virginia Museum of History and Culture’s Commonwealth History Fund presented by Dominion Energy.
And by a grant from Virginia Humanities.
JENNIFER NEWTON “LITTLE POKIE” GALLAHAN: It’s a Wednesday afternoon and the Patawomeck Quilters are gathered at our usual spot at the tribal center.
TRACY WILLIAMS FEUER: I think as a culture we’re not delicate people. That’s the best way I know to put it, we’re not delicate people.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: That’s Tracy Williams Feuer. She’s one of our members.
TRACY FEUER: So, we’re not the old lady that you think of in some rich southern town making fancy quilts.
JOANN NEWTON MEREDITH: Well, I don’t know, my grandma was very soft...well in her older years she was soft-spoken. But I heard she was a little hot head when she was younger.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: And that’s my sister JoAnn Newton Meredith.
TRACY FEUER: But I bet you if you crossed her she wasn’t delicate.
JOANN MEREDITH: Oh, no, no, no.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: For generations, Patawomeck women of White Oak, Virginia have been getting together like this to make quilts and to share stories. Most of us grew up here near our ancestral lands on Potomac Creek, about an hour south from Washington, DC.
JOANN MEREDITH: Well, daddy used to tell us that when he was bad, she could run pretty fast out the back door, get a switch off the weeping willow tree and smack him with it. (laughter) And my dad was pretty quick. He was tall and skinny and everything so he was pretty quick. And she used to wear a thimble on her finger all the time and hit him on top of the head with it.
Background voice: He probably needed a thump.
JOANN MEREDITH: Yes, he did.
JOANN MEREDITH: I’m JoAnn Newton Meredith. I live in Spotsylvania. I left White Oak when I was 18 but close by, you know Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: My sister retired after a career with the Army Corps of Engineers. She’s also a talented artist.
JOANN MEREDITH: I love to sew. I like the colors. I like to quilt. That’s it. I’m more of an art person than I am a quilter.
TRACY FEUER: I’m Tracy Williams Feuer. I grew up in White Oak. Couldn’t wait to get away. Left, went all the way to Georgia. That’s when I realized that our culture was very different than the outside culture and that’s when I couldn’t wait to get back to White Oak. So, I moved back to White Oak in 2009.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Tracy is a Stafford County school bus attendant working with special needs and pre-school age children.
TRACY FEUER: I had a school bus driver years ago, before I ever went to work for transportation, tell me that all the school bus drivers wanted the White Oak route because we still disciplined our kids. And she said, they’re not scared of daddy. She said, all you have to do is tell them, “I’m telling your momma and they’ll straighten right up. That all the White Oak kids are afraid of momma. But if you tell them, “I’m going to tell your daddy,” they don’t care. “But these White Oak mommas will get you. I wish I could hand some out. Everybody gets a White Oak grandma.”
KATHY BULLOCK HARDING: I’m Kathy Bullock Harding. I grew up in White Oak, moved next door and never left. Married a cousin. My son is the vice chief.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Kathy is the youngest of 13 children and raised five of her own. She was widowed at 50, and works at a local farm. She’s the quietest one of us.
KATHY HARDING: And, I do what’s necessary. I don’t quilt to be pretty. I do what’s necessary. (background voice: it is pretty. It’s all pretty.)
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: I’m Jennifer Newton Gallahan. I’m known in my community as Little Pokie.
I’ve lived in White Oak all my life. Our grandmother’s name was Grace Pocahontas Newton. Her nickname was Pokie, Aunt Pokie or Miss Pokie, so, that’s where the Pokie came from in my name. “Little Pokie.” Because when I was little they said I looked so much like her. She quilted and so did our mom and our aunts. And like us they shared our stories. Here’s Tracy again.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: The quilt we’re working on today will be raffled off later this year to fund a scholarship for students from our Tribe. Most of us are retired and it’s hard to believe, but we are at a point in life where we are considered the tribal elders.
Once a week we meet upstairs in a 1915, brick farmhouse we lease from Stafford County for our tribal center and museum. Our room is about 12- feet square, most of which is taken up by bookcases packed with fabric and supplies, and the long quilting frame.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: One of our tribal citizens made this for us from one of my grandmother’s 100-year-old quilt frames. And when you say frame you’re talking about these two long pieces right here. Our grandmother, when they would quilt, all the ladies in White Oak would get together and quilt and more than likely they would quilt in the kitchen or the living room. And they would set these frames in a ladder-back chair. They didn’t have these fancy stands that they put them on. So, they would all get together and quilt that way.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: As we work, we pass along stories about our lives, our Tribe and our culture. Today, we are talking about the power of Indigenous women.
You may not know this but before colonists arrived and tried to wipe us out, we were a matrilineal society. Our women held key leadership and decision-making positions.
The Patawomeck identified with the mother’s side of the family and inherited land. While men hunted and protected the Tribe, women built and repaired the houses and made pottery and clothing.
We were the keepers of tribal history, spirituality, and culture, and we cared for the land. We nurtured tribal life, providing food through gardens, caring for and educating the children. We were the glue that held our Tribe together.
In this episode you’ll learn about the Patawomeck Quilters and how, like the women before us, we carry on our ancestral strength and heritage, and pass it on to our children. This is Tribal Truths.
Quilts
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: For some women in our group, like my niece Leslie, quilting has been a way to get through hard times.
LESLEY BUCHANAN: I once made two queen-sized crocheted quilts. It worked me through a time in my marriage when I wasn’t sure we were going to stay together (laughs) and he stayed alive and I stayed alive and we’re still married 27 years later.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Our history is pieced together. Like, when my father was looking into our genealogy, he went to family cemeteries, and old homesites, and looked at family bibles.
We also rely on interpretations and anecdotes within our Tribe. Many of the papers documenting our families were burned with the courthouses during the Civil War.
Long before the war, our men were watermen and farmers. With the devastation of war, fishing was particularly important in rebuilding the economy and supporting families within our community. Women grew and canned food, raised children, sewed and quilted. We were poor. We used outhouses and heated modest homes with wood-burning stoves. Quilts were not a hobby, they were a necessity, made heavy to keep families warm.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Every quilt's different. This is more of a patchwork quilt and the old-timey quilts you would see them tied like this. Like our grandmother did, they used all kinds of stuff for batting. They didn't go to the store and buy batting like we do now. They would use old blankets. They would use old clothes. They used whatever they had because then quilting was done out of necessity. It's not like it's done now for decoration. It was done out of necessity.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Back then, fabric to make a quilt was also hard to come by.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: You cut up old clothes. You cut up rags. You shared material. Like, we have quilts that my grandmother, my aunts, my mama made, and they all have a piece of the same material in it because they shared their material. You know, I have this much leftover from my blouse, you want it for your quilt, you know, that kind of thing. So, they would trade it back and forth.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Besides keeping us warm, using old clothes for quilt patches is another way of passing on stories. Today as we sew, you can hear the hum of a heater that keeps our work room cozy.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: One of our tribal elders, Donnie Morgan, has quietly slipped in. He sits and listens.
TRACY FEUER: Sometimes, when we gather here, we get visitors like Donnie, different fellas will come. Because a lot of what goes on (everyone talking at once) It’s not like we’re gossipy but like who’s sick. Who died. Who’s related to who. We had a horrible accident last year and we’re all sitting here trying to figure out like which one it is. Because often times we have the same names in the community. That’s a common thing. I think we’ve got, I don’t know, at least three or four Alfred Williamses which was on my side of the family. Cuz we always name our kids after ancestors. So, then it gets confusing about which one you’re talking about. I think that’s why we have all these White Oak nicknames because we all have the same names.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Somebody asks Donnie what brings him to the tribal center today.
DONNIE MORGAN: Um, Gossip. No, I’m just kidding, I’m just kidding. I have eggs today for Kathy. I brought eggs from home. But uh, I remember growing up, no heat, other than a wood stove. Actually, my grandmother didn’t have running water in the house and we did have an outhouse and of course every now and then you had to move that because, well, it needed to be moved. (laughter) I lived with my grandmother probably up until I was four, something like that and being so cold in that old house, which was built probably in the early 1800s. And so many quilts on the bed, I was a little fella, I could not get out of the bed it was so heavy. And having to wrap towels around bricks to keep your feet warm. So, yeah. But most all of our traditions come from our great grandparents and great-great grandparents.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: To understand the amount of work that went into making the old quilts, my sister Joanne and I pull out a quilt made by our grandma, Grace Pocahontas Newton. It’s a work of love and art.
The pattern is called 8-point star and was her daughter Velma’s wedding quilt. It was all hand-pieced. She cut each diamond shape, using sandpaper, newspaper or grocery bags for the patterns.
She sewed each diamond by hand. She hand quilted it using the finest stitches that had to pierce three layers of fabric and that heavy batting we talked about.
She developed arthritis and eventually could no longer quilt, which made each of her quilts even more precious. When she passed, her quilts went to Aunt Velma. Then, something horrible happened.
Joann and I almost had this heritage taken away.
KATHY HARDING: Is this the one you had to buy back?
JENNIFER and JOANN: Yes
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: I’ll tell you what happened. When my Aunt Velma passed away and of course her husband got all of her belongings. When he passed away, he had an executor. He made us buy back anything we wanted from the house. This went to public auction. And we, her and I sat on the computer until, what ten or eleven o’clock that night to make sure we go those quilts back. We paid $1,000 a piece for three quilts. It went back to the estate, so then we got it back.
JOANN MEREDITH: We got it back.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Yeah, yup. But he wouldn’t give it to us.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: This story of nearly losing ownership of our heritage is not an unfamiliar one. It’s part of centuries of Europeans trying to get rid of our people and our cultures.
BRAD HATCH: Colonialism, the whole point is to erase people who are here already. It’s a whole lot easier to take land and resources when you create this idea that it was empty to start with and continually reinforce that idea through centuries of legislation.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Brad Hatch is a tribal council member and an archeologist.
BRAD HATCH: If you look at what’s taught in schools today, I think people still don’t know a lot about Virginia Indians, even though I think we’re more visible now than we have been in a very long time. I think the general public tends to be poorly educated on the fact that first of all we’re still here and second of all that we’re a very diverse group of people.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: It’s pretty awful when people deny your existence. And it happens to Indigenous people quite a lot. Just recently, Kathy and I experienced that erasure firsthand at a lecture by Rappahannock Chief Anne Richardson during the question and answer session.
AUDIENCE MEMBER: I’ve read a lot recently about the Nanzatico and Patawomeck and the Portobago, I know some history there. And the Rappahannock seemed to have been able to survive where those other Tribes were completely eradicated.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: It maybe hard to hear, but an audience member said our Tribe was “completely eradicated.” But Chief Anne, she sets her straight.
CHIEF ANNE RICHARDSON: Well, first of all the Patawomeck are still alive and kicking up in Stafford County. And they have a museum. Hi, I’m glad you guys came. They have a museum up there on Route 3 that is absolutely beautiful. I encourage you to go and visit them. I’m good friends with their chief, I love him. And their people have been interacting with my people and marrying with my people for probably hundreds of thousands of years.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: It’s unfortunate that even today people don’t believe we exist. As Brad said, the colonists tried to erase us. But as Chief Anne said, some of us were absorbed into her Tribe and others. Like the Rappahannocks, we hid in plain sight.
Legislation like Jim Crow laws mandated racial segregation for three quarters of a century beginning in the 1890s.
One of the darkest times for Tribes in Virginia was what some of us call the “Reign of Terror” or “Paper Genocide.” Virginia enacted the Racial Integrity Act of 1924, which began the campaign to once again erase us by removing Indigenous people from the state Bureau of Vital Statistics.
Women could not declare their child’s tribal affiliation on a birth certificate and were forced to write “colored.” Some of us in our Tribe who had married Europeans were able to pass as White. Even in their own homes, many of our ancestors were guarded about their Indigenous heritage for fear of going to jail.
CALEB DODD: Terrible to say, but it’s the truth, everybody in White Oak the joke is we don’t have a family tree we have a family stump. Everybody intermarried and that was the thing to keep the Indian blood, that was what the old-timers said.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Caleb Dodd is an 18-year-old tribal citizen. He tells our stories like he’s an elder. He’s a talented musician. In between playing, he tells his family history.
CALEB DODD: Everybody started to say, “No, we’re not Indian. My great-grandfather was born in 1924, which was the year it passed. My great-great grandmother Fanny would say, “Don’t say that, don’t say that. They weren’t around here. They’re not in our blood, no, we don’t have any of that.” Because had to hide it from people.
Women
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: One way to understand what happened to Indigenous women is the story of Pocahontas. It’s a complicated one first twisted by colonists and continues to be misunderstood today. What we know is she was the daughter of Wahunsenacawh, the paramount chief of the Powhatan confederacy of 30 plus Tribes, including ours.
She was married to a member of our Tribe until she was kidnapped, put on a ship and confined by the British at Jamestown.
Her arranged marriage to colonist John Rolfe put an end to the first Anglo-Powhatan War. She had a child with him. Later, Rolfe took her to England where she died under mysterious circumstances, just as she was on a ship home. She was buried in England.
The colonist version of the story put my tribe at the center of the plot to kidnap Pocahontas. We grew up with this story. In it, the chief’s brother and his wife plotted with the British to kidnap Pocahontas. His name was Iopassus also known as Japazaw. He was chief of one of our towns called Passapatanzy. And brother to the chief of the Patawomeck Tribe.
Today, we’re changing that narrative. In our museum downstairs at the tribal center, we display a 1624 European engraving, a rendition of this betrayal. Japazaw is depicted as a devil, wearing a tail, feathers on either side of his head like horns, and a pointed beard. But behind him British soldiers are burning down one of our villages. To us, it’s obvious we were forced to hand over Pocahontas.
What happened to Pocahontas hits a nerve with JoAnn.
JOANN MEREDITH: It just makes sense that she was taken, stolen, raped and held against her will, forever. I think her sister was over there wasn’t she? And, she was okay, they got on the ship, the next day she died. So they think she was murdered.
But as a woman, I know what we go through now, and what they probably went through back then was horrendous. You had no say. You had no say in nothing at all so.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: But women did have a say in just about everything before colonists made our cultures and traditions illegal. In fact, they were quite powerful among the Eastern Woodland communities up and down the Atlantic Coast. To learn more about this we meet with Diana Gates, a citizen of the Cheroenhaka Nottoway Tribe, who has done a great deal of research on the history of Indigenous women. We meet her at an exhibit on Indigenous Perspectives at the Library of Virginia in Richmond.
Diana is a policy researcher with several degrees and in a doctor of social work program. She’s also a single mother of two small children.
DIANA GATES: I sleep sometimes.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: As she talks Diana uses an unfamiliar term, matrifocal.
DIANA GATES: So, women, mothers in particular, grandmothers were the focal point of families. You'll see that largely women were heads of households. They controlled the agriculture within the communities. So, upwards of 60 to 70% of a community's diet came from women's efforts in agriculture.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Women also held political leadership roles and some were warriors. And there’s more. Indigenous women were allowed extramarital liaisons and divorce.
DIANA GATES: A lot of the early English settlers wrote about these. So, William Strachey in particular is one. These settlers were not anthropologists, so the science of anthropology hadn't been created yet. And the early settlers were not objective social science researchers.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Strachey and other colonists came from a patriarchal society where men controlled the home and land, and women were the property of their husbands. Now, they saw tribal culture that was completely opposite.
DIANA GATES: Everyone was pretty much free to behave how they wanted as long as it wasn't to the detriment to other people, to their lands, to communal living. So there was just a lot more freedom that these European settlers had a hard time wrapping their heads around.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: But all that power became a target for colonizers who forcibly inserted their culture.
DIANA GATES: A lot of the thinking is around civilizing and Christianizing the Indian savages. And from our perspective, we're thinking, hey, these guys don't even bathe regularly. Why are they thinking they're going to civilize us? Y'all stink.
You know, like, what do you mean, civilizing? We have civilizations here that are mutually beneficial for everyone. It's based on communal leadership. It's egalitarian. And you come to civilize us?
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: But from that European, Christian, male-dominated perspective, Tribes whose men had more than one wife and women who were allowed extramarital liaisons and divorce, lined up with the colonial view of us as savages.
So they targeted Indigenous women’s power.
DIANA GATES: We still had women chiefs, we had women in political leadership throughout the mid-1800s. And then it really dwindles. And there seems to be a big shift between the mid-1800s to even, you know, the 1980s, we're seeing shifts in women in political leadership. So, there is this big time period where women are not able to access political leadership.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: And, use their laws against us. As with Pocahontas, marriage is weaponized by colonists. During the 17th Century colonies began to require marriage licenses.
DIANA GATES: There was a shift to needing to have your marriage confirmed in writing by a court. You see that from that point on, it's very difficult for women to initiate divorce. And marriages are also seen as advantageous for early English settlers because they have access to land. The base point of colonization is ownership of land. And so that is an extreme driver of the intentions for early English settlers to marry or want to marry Virginia Indian women. We had always inherited land because we inherited it from our mothers because they were the ones who owned land, owned the household.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Colonists began to erode ancestral land rights of Indigenous women.
DIANA GATES: So you see that only men can hold land. So then women have to become married to be able to retain the land that their families have always lived on. So, it forces Virginia Indian women into these Christianized marriages, documented in a court of law so that they would be able to retain ownership of their families' land. And so then that's when you see that slow, slow creep in of these principles to within our communities. And then they also start to take root within our communities, which is unfortunate.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Today, the Rappahannock, Monacan and Nottoway Tribes have influential women chiefs. Indigenous women are assistant chiefs and have seats on tribal councils in Tribes throughout Virginia.
DIANA GATES: I just think it's so powerful to make that connection that our continuity, our continuity of communal and family leadership is now the reason why we are coming out in droves for political leadership. That to me is rematriation and that's something I'm incredibly proud of for our communities here.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: I’m thinking of our quilts and how they’re also a powerful way women pass on history. Diana agrees.
DIANA GATES: We also see some tribes like the Patawomeck Tribe and the Saponi Tribe where quilting is a big piece of their community's history and it's a big piece similar to the kitchen table where it encourages folks to sit around a communal table.
So I think it's just as much about the beautiful product as it is about the way that it's made, the table that everyone sits around, the transference of knowledge of how to quilt, talking about funny stories from our families, histories, and you know what your great uncle used to do, you know, those types of really fun stories. They all come out around the kitchen table or the quilting table. It's a great chance for grandmothers to sit with their daughters and their granddaughters.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Men in our Tribe, like Donnie Morgan, you heard from him earlier, like to sit with us.
DIANA GATES: I know there are men that participate in quilting and I think younger men in particular are understanding that this is where all of the good stuff is getting passed down. This is where you hear all the good stuff because that family lore is just as important, even more important than uncovering a historical account that an English settler wrote.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Diana says her son, at three, often sits with his father, who is Saponi, while he quilts with his Tribe.
DIANA GATES: He's hearing those stories. It's important for young boys to see their fathers or other men in their community demonstrating their deference to women's teaching.
And I'm proud that my son is learning that, that women's knowledge has not been privileged over the last couple of centuries, but it's equally as important in the framework of our communities.
The Creek
KATHY HARDING: My father was a commercial fisherman, so the eel pots and all that is part of my heritage. He was on the Potomac at the “crick” as we call it.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: That’s Kathy Bullock Harding, our quiet quilter. Her father taught her how to weigh the fish he caught because he didn’t trust anyone. We all have a connection to the water. Potomac Creek is where our Tribe once lived and traded. In the Algonquian language Patawomeck means, “to bring again, they go and come” or, more directly, “trading center.” Today I’m with my sister, JoAnn, Brad Hatch and Reagan Anderson. At 30, Reagan is the youngest member of our quilting group.
We’re out on our first kayaking trip of the year and it’s a gorgeous day. Kathy is with her family on a motorboat. She zooms past us out toward the Potomac River, a huge smile on her face. She’s at peace. The same peace we each feel when we’re here.
As we paddle, Brad paints the scene.
BRAD HATCH: Right now we’re kind of facing out towards the mouth of the creek where it joins the Potomac River and on the left side we’ve got what’s called Indian Point or Marlboro Point. That’s the location of the village that John Smith came to in 1608 and encountered our people. Before that, there was a village there as early as the 1300’s that our people have lived in. And then across the Potomac Creek is Passapatanzy, which is the location of another village that was there at least during the English colonial period up until the about the middle of the 17th Century.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Some of our ancestral lands are now part of Crow’s Nest Natural Area Preserve.
BRAD HATCH: To our left directly is Crow’s Nest which has several archeological sites that show the persistence of the Patawomeck Indian people on the landscape here. And to our right, we have Belle Plains Boat Landing, which is the place where a lot of our tribal fishermen put their boats out in the sorta the late 19th - 20th Century and they still fish out of that area today.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Like me, some in our Tribe still own properties close to our ancestral lands near the creek. Reagan lives near Passapatanzy.
REAGAN ANDERSON: I’m Reagan Anderson, I’m a citizen of the Patawomeck Tribe. I’m a preservationist and archeologist.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: And she’s been the tribal historic preservation intern for the Virginia Department of Historic Resources.
REAGAN ANDERSON: You know my grandpa, he knows of the whole, “don’t say you’re an Indian” kind of thing. His family, they didn’t really hide it, they didn’t really care to hide it or to say if they were. They were always kind of nonchalant and my grandpa is still kinda nonchalant about it.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Reagan and Brad have brought back our tribal tradition of making eel pots.
REAGAN ANDERSON: So, fishing has always been a really big part of my family. Getting into the eel pots was a no brainer. Just like I brought my ancestors with me doing that so.
BRAD HATCH: The creek here is the center of our community, it has been for a very long time. In know a lot of people think of community centers as being land-based. But I think our... both our way of life and the way we look at the world is very water-based. And it’s right here on Potomac Creek and so we have a vested interest in the lands that surround the creek and because of that the health of the creek.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Unfortunately, Potomac Creek is one of the most unhealthy bodies of water in this area.
BRAD HATCH: We have a tribal tradition of making eel pots and I was out here last week and caught an eel in one of my eel pots but you can’t eat that eel. Because they’re so full of PCBs that you’re not supposed to eat them.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Afterward, we cook hotdogs on a small campfire at our tiny property at Belle Plains. Then some of the younger men in our Tribe arrive and just as their ancestors, pile into a boat and head out to fish.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: We have cookouts, we have campouts. We camp at least once or twice a year. We’ve had weddings, we’ve had wakes, we’ve had funerals. When our mother died, unbeknownst to us, all of her grandchildren came down here. And that’s where they celebrated her... was right here down on that water.
JOANN MEREDITH: We did the same when daddy died.
JENNIFER GALLAHAN: Our father struggled to keep this little piece of property, a quarter of an acre, as people tried to squat on it and steal it and county taxes skyrocketed. Today, we have to turn people away who try to put their boats in here. That’s why we’re keeping an eye on development, to be sure it doesn’t encroach on our heritage. Tracey said it best while we were quilting.
TRACY FEUER: So the bottom line is 400 years later they're still fighting for their land. There are still people trying to take the land 400 years later.
Credits
“It’s a Long, Long Way to the Top of the World,” was written by Don Wayne. “Sing Me Back Home,” was written by Merle Haggard. Both songs are performed by Caleb Dodd of the Patawomeck Indian Tribe.
Indian flute was performed by Ruby Harding of the Patawomeck Indian Tribe.
Other music in this episode by Blue Dot Sessions.
Tribal Truths is reported, written and sound designed by Pamela D’Angelo. Kelley Libby is editor. Additional editing by David Seidel, Jennifer Newton “Little Pokie” Gallahan and Brad Hatch.
Support is provided by the Virginia Museum of History and Culture’s Commonwealth History Fund presented by Dominion Energy and Virginia Humanities. Additional support is by WVTF/Radio IQ.
